|
James E. Birren, Ph.D., (born April 4, 1918 ) is one of the founders of the organized field of gerontology since the 1940s (although the term itself dates to circa 1903). He is a past president of The Gerontological Society of America, and author of over 250 publications. ==Theories== Birren is known for defining aging as three distinct processes: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Birren was the founding dean of the University of Southern California Leonard Davis School of Gerontology and founding director of the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center, and after his retirement from USC was associated for many years with the UCLA Center on Aging. A leading gerontological theorist in the area of neurocognition and psychology, Birren established much of the framework of modern gerontological theory, such as "quality of life" as a multidimensional concept involving biological, psychological, and sociocultural domains. Aging and Slowing of Behavior It has been over a hundred years since Francis Galton observed that older persons responded more slowly than the young. Since then, Birren and colleagues demonstrated that slowness of behavior with age has become the most robust phenomenon seen in research on aging. The weight of evidence suggests that slowness of behavior with advancing age is a general process, which is most likely of a biological nature. In addition, speed of behavior may be viewed as a reliable marker of aging. General slowing of behavior with age is related not only to biological changes in the CNS, but also to speed of cognitive functions. One of the consequences of slowing in humans is vulnerability, accidents and falls. In animals slowness leads to vulnerability to predators. Thus slowness in general is a major contributor to shortening length of life. The explanation of the cause of slowness with age primarily focuses on the central nervous system where several changes contribute, e.g., loss of brain cells, pathological interferences with conduction, and reduced neurotransmitters. However, general slowing of behavior is a complex process and its causes need to be further studied leading to interventions. ---- Reference: Birren, J.E. & Fischer, L.M. (1995). Aging and speed of behavior: Possible consequences for psychological functioning. Ann. Rev. Psychol., 46, 329-353. Counterpart Theory In 1960, James E. Birren, the Nestor of American gerontology, presented a general theory of aging as a counterpart of development. The use of the metaphor counterpart is meant to express the idea that there are latent structures of behavior (emotions, cognitions, and motivations) carried forward from earlier experiences that interact with present situations. Aging is viewed as a transformation of the biological and behavioral development of the organism expressed in a counterpart manner in variable ecological contexts. Observations of old persons suggested that there is a pattern to the changes that occur in late life, which are not merely due to happenstance or chance. In explanation of these late-life patterns of change, Birren noticed that natural selection as an explanatory mechanism was not very obvious since some of the patterns or features in old persons (organisms) do not appear until long after the age of reproduction has passed. He concluded, therefore, that these regularly appearing features (including longevity) must be a consequence of traits that were selected for at the time of reproduction. Briefly summarized, Birren’s counterpart theory states that any biologically based order in late-life characteristics must arise in association from counterpart characteristics of development that were subject to pressures of selection. Birren pointed out that behavioral factors can be involved in the counterpart process, that is, patterning of late-life events could arise via natural selection of long-lived and intelligent persons. For example, although individual differences in longevity do not appear until long after reproduction has been completed, intelligent, long-lived parents are able to provide an environment in terms of food and protection that is favorable for their young to survive. In other words, counterpart theory advocates indirect selection for positive late-life characteristics that embrace a wide range of complex biological (e.g. potential for a long life) and behavioral (e.g., intelligence) characteristics. As such, counterpart theory expanded the classical hill metaphor of development and aging to include questions about their relationships and how behavior comes to be organized over the adult years of life, if not over the whole life span. ---- Reference: Birren, J.E. (1960). Psychological aspects of aging. Annual Review of Psychology, 11, 161-198. Schroots, J.J.F. Theories of aging: Psychology (2007). In: J.E. Birren (Ed.), Encyclopedia of gerontology; Age, aging and the aged (2nd Edition; Volume 2, pp. 611– 620). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「James Birren」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|